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Art is present everywhere in Bhutan, from the folk paintings found on the sides of buildings to the beautiful traditional textiles. Most of the motifs and subjects depicted in the arts of Bhutan can be traced to the Vajrayana, or Diamond Path, tradition of Buddhism. This form of Buddhism, which is an extension of Mahayana Buddhism, has been in full flower in the country for centuries.
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The Nyingma tradition, one of the four major schools of Vajrayana Buddhism, has thrived in the country from at least the 12th century onwards. Various schools and lineages within the Nyingma school were present in Bhutan and many remain vital today. The Nyingma school enjoys an especially large following in Eastern Bhutan.
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One of the greatest religious personalities of the Nyingma school was treasure revealer Pema Lingpa (1450-1521). Born and raised in Bhutan, he had a major influence on the country's religious life. Pema Lingpa established the eponymous Peiling branch of the Nyingma school. Also, two of the most revered Nyingma lineage masters, Longchen Rabjam (1308-1363) and Dorje Lingpa (1346-1405), spent time in Bhutan and established many centers of learning and inspired generations of followers.
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Both Dorje Lingpa and Pema Lingpa were renowned tertön, or Treasure Revealers. Through miraculous means, the tertön reveal treasures previously hidden by Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche) in the eighth century. These treasures, which include revealed dances, rituals, texts, and objects, were to remain hidden by Padmasambhava until the appropriate time for their discovery.
The Drukpa Kagyu school came to have a strong and lasting effect not just on the religious life of Bhutan, but also on political and cultural institutions and traditions in the country. The mutual acceptance and strong relationship between the Drukpa Kagyu and Nyingma schools is characteristic of contemporary Bhutan.
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The arrival of Drukpa Kagyu Buddhism in Bhutan is credited to Phajo Drugom Zhigpo (1184-1251), a lay priest from Kham (Eastern Tibet). According to his biography, Phajo’s arrival in Bhutan as a missionary of the Drukpa school was predicted by Tsangpa Gyarey (1161-1211), the founder of the Drukpa Kagyu school, and Padmasambhava (8th century). Phajo is a familiar historical figure in Bhutan and helped spread the Drukpa Kagyu school through his attendants.
The growth and development of Drukpa Kagyu in Bhutan in the intervening years between Phajo and Zhabdrung, roughly 1250 to 1600, are not well documented. The paucity of contemporaneous primary sources has kept this medieval period shrouded in mystery. One major figure of the Drukpa Kagyu lineage who is known to have visited Bhutan in this era is Drukpa Kunley (1455-1529), a flamboyant and eccentric religious personality.
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Drukpa Kunley is certainly one of the most beloved figures in Bhutan. He arrived in the country from his native Tibet and propagated Buddhist teachings in a bizarre and colorful style. Never shying away from the affections of women and always partial to strong drinks, Drukpa Kunley cut a wide swath through the country and left behind many lively stories, not to mention progeny.
Unquestionably the most critical figure in the development and unification of Bhutan is the great Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal (1594-1651). Zhabdrung, which means “at whose feet one submits”, is an honorific title. In Bhutan it has become synonymous with Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, the great unifier of the country. He is by far the most frequently depicted historical figure in the Buddhist art of Bhutan. Zhabdrung images appear in every media associated with Buddhist art in Bhutan: embroidered thangkas, appliqué thangkas, painted thangkas, large-scale thangkas (thöngdrel), clay sculpture, metal sculpture, wall paintings, and associated ritual items. Images of Zhabdrung can be found from modest home altars to the great monastic temples.
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Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal descended from a noble family that historically provided the Chief Abbot of the very important Ralung monastery in Southern Tibet. Ralung was the greatest center of Drukpa Kagyu learning and the seat of the tradition. In 1616 Zhabdrung left Ralung after a bitter struggle with a rival claimant to a line of incarnation. The rival claimant was supported by the powerful king of Tsang. Zhabdrung accepted an invitation from his loyal followers in Bhutan, particularly the Drukpa Kagyu faithful already present in the country, and set about consolidating the strength of the Drukpa Kagyu school in the region and instituting his own system of governance in Bhutan. Over the course of twenty years he defeated all rivals in the country and henceforth the Drukpa Kagyu school of Buddhism was embraced as the state religion.
Establishing the definite date of death for Zhabdrung is difficult for his death was not acknowledged for over 50 years to insure peace after the passing of such a unifying and charismatic figure. It is generally presumed he died shortly after entering meditation in 1651 or 1652. His annual remembrance ceremony (zhabdrung ku chö), is held on the tenth day of the fourth lunar month. This day is celebrated as a national holiday in Bhutan and culminates in a ritual presided over by the His Majesty the King of Bhutan and His Holiness the Je Khenpo, Chief Abbot of Bhutan.
After the death of Zhabdrung the country evolved into the dual system (chöse) of governance, with a secular ruler (desi) who presided over official and civil affairs and the Je Khenpo, who ruled over the monastic community and religious affairs.
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Like the great Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, the fourth secular ruler (desi) Tenzin Rabgye (1638-96) is admired for his mastery over both religious and civil affairs. His private quarters in Tango Monastery are preserved as a small chapel. This room, known as the zimkhang, is among the most beautifully decorated sacred spaces in Bhutan. The small temple is replete with richly painted wall murals and clay statuary commissioned by Tenzin Rabgye during the monastery’s renovation in 1688-89. The subject of the fine paintings and sculptures is primarily historical figures of the Kagyu lineage.
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The seventy Je Khenpos, or Chief Abbots of the Drukpa Kagyu (the national religion of Bhutan) comprise an important subject of portraiture in the religious arts of country. His Holiness Je Khenpo Trulku Jigme Choedhha is the seventieth and current Je Khenpo and has held this office since 1994. Unlike other supreme religious leaders such as the Pope and the Dalai Lama, Je Khenpos serve an unfixed term of office (usually lasting about five years) rather than lifetime appointments. While the post of Je Khenpo requires extraordinary effort and administrative skills, several Je Khenpos have also distinguished themselves as great scholars and religious teachers. The Ninth Je Khenpo, Shakya Rinchen (1710-1759), for example, popularized the practices of the female deity Ushnishavijaya (namgyalma). He also authored many religious classics and commentaries that are still used in the monastic schools and colleges in Bhutan.
The Buddhist visual arts of Bhutan are closely related to the painting and sculpture traditions in neighboring cultures such as those found in Tibet and Nepal. The itinerant nature of Himalayan artists complicates the geographic definition of art styles in the region. Certainly Newar, Tibetan, and Bhutanese artists traveled throughout the Himalayas, setting up workshops and taking commissions. The easy transportability of rolled thangka paintings further contributes the wide dissemination of styles. However, there are several stylistic elements that are particularly associated with Buddhist art in Bhutan.
Bhutan’s sculptors are especially talented in the use of clay. The subject of the sculptures embraces the vast Buddhist pantheon, from historical figures to fantastic wrathful deities. These clay sculptures range in size from a few inches, such as molded clay tablets (tsha tsha), to gigantic statues over three meters in height. Clay sculptures can sometimes last for many centuries, but because of their fragility, these unfired clay pieces have not been included in this exhibition. Similar to consecrated bronze images, some clay sculptures contain the sokshing, “tree of life” wooden core inserted inside the center of the image. Large temple images are most frequently made of unfired clay.
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A figure of eleven-headed, thousand-armed Avalokiteshvara from Semtokha Dzong, the first fortress built by Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, in 1629, and consecrated in 1631, is an outstanding example of clay sculpture in Bhutan. This clay sculpture can be dated to the time of the dzong’s construction. It is accompanied by a four-armed Avalokiteshvara (left) and Tara (right). The large figure of Avalokiteshvara is beautifully proportioned and painted.
Most of the sculpture and ritual objects on view in The Dragon’s Gift exhibition are created from metal alloys. The majority metal most commonly found in the alloys appears to be copper, though this has yet to be tested and compared among a large sample. Most of the alloys are then gilded and painted with a mixture of gold dust and binder (cold gold) and pigments. The act of re-painting an image, particularly the face, is an expression of piety that continues today. Silver, a very precious metal, is used on rare occasion for important sculptures in Bhutan. These works normally feature a pleasing contrast between silver and gilded areas. Multi-lobed lotus pedestals and the use of wax to seal the baseplate are further characteristics present in Bhutanese sculpture.
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Painting in Bhutan comes in a number of categories. First there is the painting of the exterior and interior of homes, temples, and dzongs. Then there is the painting of clay and metal sculptures. Finally there are religious paintings in the form of wall paintings and thangkas.
Bhutan’s painters are usually anonymous, and they do not sign their names because painting itself is an act of merit. The patrons who commissioned the paintings also used this opportunity to accrue merit, and they paid for the best quality pigments and gold, and the best brocade for mounting finished paintings.
While some wall painting are painted directly on the prepared mud walls of temples, most wall paintings in Bhutan are done on a piece of thin fabric glued onto the wall with a paste of wheat flour and Sichuan pepper / prickly ash.
It is important to study the wall paintings of temples to reveal style and dating. Unfortunately, the traditional way of repainting existing older wall paintings does not help the process. However, some wall paintings remain more or less intact, and can give the viewer an idea of what the original looked like. Fine examples may be found at Dhüntse Lhakhang in Paro and at Tamshing Lhakhang in Bumthang.
The thangkas of Bhutan and Tibet are superficially similar, but there are major and minor differences. The major difference is iconography. It is in the subject matter depicted, rather than from the painting style, that a Bhutanese attribution can be made with confidence. One way to ascertain whether or not a thangka comes from Bhutan is by studying its images. Some icons are specific to Bhutan. For example, a thangka showing the image of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, the unifier of Bhutan, with his characteristic long beard, is almost certainly of Bhutanese origin. A wide range of deities figure more prominently in the arts of Bhutan than elsewhere in the region. These deities are usually connected with religious practices and lineages popular in the country. For example, Dorje Yudrönma, a female deity and Dharma Protector, appears with greater frequency in Bhutan than in neighboring regions. She is thought to have one of her abode’s in Bhutan.
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Very large thangkas (tongdrel) are unfurled on special religious occasions in Bhutan. These gigantic thangkas are sometimes appliquéd, and sometimes embroidered. Mostly, they are a combination of the two techniques. Just like the painted thangkas, Bhutanese appliqué thangkas differ from their Tibetan counterparts by their iconography. Many of these large hangings feature portraits of hierarchs of the Drukpa Kagyu school, and are frequently used in the annual remembrance ceremonies commemorating historical masters. Some textile thangkas are remarkable for their fine workmanship and the quality of Chinese brocades, which came all the way from China via Lhasa. Sometimes coral, turquoise, and other precious materials are affixed to the textile thangka, such as on an 18th century thangka of Jamgön Ngawang Gyaltshen.
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The thirteen traditional arts and crafts of historic Bhutan were formally codified during the reign of Tenzin Rabgye (r.1680-94). These traditional arts and crafts are known collectively as zorig chusum. Zo means the ability to make, rig is the science or craft, and chusum is the word for “thirteen.”
They are summarized as follows:
1. Woodworking (shingzo) – building of dzongs and other structures such as palaces, temples, and houses, and making tools and implements.
2. Stone carving (dozo) – building stone walls and stupas, fashioning tools, millstones, and stone pots.
3. Carving (parzo) – this includes woodcarving, stone carving, and slate carving.
4. Painting (lhazo) – a collective term for religious paintings, such as thangkas, mandalas, and wall painting; and house decoration.
5. Clay arts (jinzo) – used in construction of buildings, such as mortar/plastering and rammed-earth; making statues and masks, making pottery.
6. Metal casting (lugzo) – casting of statues (mainly bronze), bells, musical instruments, and the crafting of kitchen tools and utensils; slip casting for jewelry and pottery.
7. Wood-turning (shagzo) – using the treadle-lathe to turn bowls and other vessels from wood burls and roots of trees, including hand drums and ladles.
8. Blacksmithing (garzo) – the making of chains, ploughs, and weapons such as swords, knives, and axes.
9. Gold and silver works (trözo) – this includes all ornaments of copper, silver, and gold, and the various techniques associated with their production, such as drawing, engraving, beating, etc.
10. Basketry (tshazo) – using cane and bamboo in the making of storage baskets, hats, beer containers, floor mats, bamboo thatching, and bows and arrows.
11. Paper-making (dezo) – making traditional paper out of Daphne bark (de). Nowadays, bamboo and rice stalk are also used.
12. Needlework (tshemzo) – stitching and embroidery on cloth and leather, subdivided into sewing and embroidery (tshemdrup), appliqué work, and patchwork (lhendrup). Hat-making and boot-making come under this category.
13. Weaving (thagzo) – this is the largest industry and includes yarn preparation, dyeing and designing.
Presently in Bhutan there are two state-sponsored schools devoted to the Thirteen Traditional Arts and Crafts. The school’s instructor’s are passing down time-honored cultural skills to their students who will further perpetuate these traditions in Bhutan.
From the ubiquitous colorful prayer flags to massive fortresses of religious and political administration, Bhutan is a country brimming with Buddhist art and imagery. Indeed Buddhist symbols and motifs form the core visual vocabulary of the nation’s culture. The motives for the creation of the images is often related to the desire to make merit and the need to perform rituals. In the hands of the practitioner, sacred works of art, such as thangkas and sculptures, become important tools to be employed on the journey to enlightenment. Through meditation, visualization, and in a variety of ritual practices, the Buddhist objects of art serve specific religious aims. One of the great benefits of the thriving Buddhist culture of contemporary Bhutan is that this “sacred art” can still be experienced as inseparable from religious faith and practice. It is in the spirit of a living religious tradition that the Buddhist arts of Bhutan are presented through The Dragon’s Gift: The Sacred Arts of Bhutan.